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content/Biokemi/Cellulära processer/Translation/Instuderingsfrågor.md

@@ -5,49 +5,125 @@ tags:
   - instuderingsuppgifter
 föreläsare: Ana Luis
 ---
-
 ## Genetic code
-#### Describe the main features of the genetic code.
 
-#### What is degeneracy of the genetic code and what its biological significance?
+### Describe the main features of the genetic code.
+```spoiler-block:
+Triplet code (codons of three nucleotides), non-overlapping, read continuously, nearly universal, and unambiguous (each codon specifies one amino acid or stop).
+```
+
+### What is degeneracy of the genetic code and its biological significance?
+```spoiler-block:
+Multiple codons encode the same amino acid; this reduces the impact of point mutations and translation errors.
+```
 
 ## Translation and tRNA
-#### What is translation?
 
-#### What is a tRNA and what is its function in protein synthesis?
+### What is translation?
+```spoiler-block:
+The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA as a template.
+```
 
-#### What are the general characteristics of a tRNA?
+### What is a tRNA and what is its function in protein synthesis?
+```spoiler-block:
+A transfer RNA that carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome and matches it to the mRNA codon.
+```
 
-#### Why the 3’ CCA terminal region in a tRNA is also know as the acceptor arm?
+### What are the general characteristics of a tRNA?
+```spoiler-block:
+Small (~75 nt), cloverleaf secondary structure, L-shaped 3D structure, anticodon loop, and 3′-CCA end.
+```
 
-#### What is the wobble effect and which base in the anticodon determines the wobble effect?
+### Why is the 3′ CCA region called the acceptor arm?
+```spoiler-block:
+It is the site where the amino acid is covalently attached to the tRNA.
+```
 
-#### Explain why aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are the ‘true reads’ of the genetic code?
+### What is the wobble effect and which base determines it?
+```spoiler-block:
+Flexible base pairing at the third codon position; determined by the first base (5′ end) of the anticodon.
+```
 
-#### How do aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases work? Describe active and editing sites.
+### Why are aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases the ‘true readers’ of the genetic code?
+```spoiler-block:
+They ensure correct amino acid is attached to the correct tRNA, enforcing codon–amino acid fidelity.
+```
+
+### How do aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases work?
+```spoiler-block:
+Two-step reaction: amino acid activation with ATP, then transfer to tRNA; editing site removes mischarged amino acids.
+```
 
 ## Ribosomes
-#### What is a ribosome and what are its different components?
 
-#### Which components of the ribosome are critical to its structure and function?
+### What is a ribosome and what are its components?
+```spoiler-block:
+A ribonucleoprotein complex of rRNA and proteins; composed of large and small subunits.
+```
 
-#### Describe the three binding sites (A, P, and E) and which tRNAs are found in each site.
-#### What are the differences between bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes?
+### Which ribosomal components are critical for structure and function?
+```spoiler-block:
+rRNA forms the structural core and catalyzes peptide bond formation.
+```
 
-#### How can the ribosome be used as a structure to development of new antibiotics?
+### Describe the A, P, and E sites.
+```spoiler-block:
+A-site binds aminoacyl-tRNA; P-site holds peptidyl-tRNA; E-site releases empty tRNA.
+```
+
+### Differences between bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes?
+```spoiler-block:
+Bacterial: 70S (30S+50S); eukaryotic: 80S (40S+60S).
+```
+
+### How can ribosomes be targets for antibiotics?
+```spoiler-block:
+Antibiotics selectively bind bacterial ribosomes, inhibiting translation without affecting eukaryotic ribosomes.
+```
 
 ## Protein translation mechanism
-#### What are the steps of protein translation?
 
-#### What are the characteristics of the initiation region in bacteria?
+### What are the steps of protein translation?
+```spoiler-block:
+Initiation, elongation, and termination.
+```
 
-#### Explain why the reading frame is establish during the initiation step of protein synthesis?
-#### How does protein initiation start and what role initiation factors play?
-#### What is the role of elongation and translocation factors?
-#### What is the role of release factors in protein synthesis?
+### Characteristics of the bacterial initiation region?
+```spoiler-block:
+Shine–Dalgarno sequence upstream of start codon aligns mRNA with ribosome.
+```
 
-#### What is a polysome and what is its biological significance?
+### Why is the reading frame established during initiation?
+```spoiler-block:
+Start codon positioning defines triplet grouping for the entire mRNA.
+```
 
-#### What are the differences between bacteria and eukaryotic protein biosynthesis?
+### How does protein initiation start and what is the role of initiation factors?
+```spoiler-block:
+Initiation factors assemble ribosomal subunits at the start codon and recruit initiator tRNA.
+```
 
-#### Streptomycin is a bacterial antibiotic that blocks protein biosynthesis. Describe how this antibiotic works and which step of protein biosynthesis is inhibited.
+### Role of elongation and translocation factors?
+```spoiler-block:
+Deliver aa-tRNAs (EF-Tu/eEF1A) and move ribosome along mRNA (EF-G/eEF2).
+```
+
+### Role of release factors?
+```spoiler-block:
+Recognize stop codons and trigger peptide release.
+```
+
+### What is a polysome and its significance?
+```spoiler-block:
+Multiple ribosomes translating one mRNA simultaneously, increasing efficiency.
+```
+
+### Differences between bacterial and eukaryotic protein biosynthesis?
+```spoiler-block:
+Different ribosomes, initiation mechanisms, factors, and cellular localization.
+```
+
+### How does streptomycin inhibit protein biosynthesis?
+```spoiler-block:
+Binds 30S subunit, causes misreading of mRNA, and blocks initiation.
+```